Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia
Copyright (c) 1994, 1995 Compton's NewMedia, Inc
Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer
legal rights and opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded
as women's most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in
won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities.
Perhaps most important, they fought for and to a large degree accomplished a
reevaluation of traditional views of their role in society.
Formal education for girls historically has been secondary
to that for boys. They could attend
the master's schools for boys when there was room, usually during the summer
when most of the boys were working. By the end of the 19th century, however,
the number of women students had increased greatly. Higher education
particularly was broadened by the rise of women's colleges and the admission of
women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth of
resident college and university students were women. By 1900 the proportion had
increased to more than one third.
Women obtained 19 percent of all undergraduate college
degrees around the beginning of the 20th century. By 1984 the figure had
sharply increased to 49 percent. Women also increased their numbers in graduate
study. By the mid-1980s women were earning 49 percent of all master's degrees
and about 33 percent of all doctoral degrees. In 1985 about 53 percent of all
college students were women, more than one quarter of who were above age 29.
Women at Work
In colonial America, women who earned their own living
usually became seamstresses or kept boardinghouses. But some women worked in
professions and jobs available mostly to men. There were women doctors,
lawyers, preachers, teachers, writers, and singers. By the early 19th century,
however, acceptable occupations for working women were limited to factory labor
or domestic work. Women were excluded from the professions, except for writing
and teaching.
The medical profession is an example of changed attitudes in
the 19th and 20th centuries about what was regarded as suitable work for women.
Prior to the 1800s there were almost no medical schools, and virtually any
enterprising person could practice medicine. Indeed, obstetrics was the domain
of women.
Beginning in the 19th century, the required educational
preparation, particularly for the practice of medicine, increased. This tended
to prevent many young women, who married early and bore many children, from
entering professional careers. Although home nursing was considered a proper
female occupation, nursing in hospitals was done almost exclusively by men.
Specific discrimination against women also began to appear. For example, the
American Medical Association, founded in 1846, eliminated women from membership.
Barred also from attending "men's" medical colleges, women enrolled
in their own for instance, the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, which
was established in 1850. By the 1910s, however, women were attending many
leading medical schools, and in 1915 the American Medical Association began to
admit women members.
In 1890, women constituted about 5 percent of the total
doctors in the United States. During the 1980s the proportion was about 17
percent.
Women also had not greatly improved their status in other
professions. In 1930 about 2 percent of all American lawyers and judges were
women in 1989, about 22 percent. In 1930 there were almost no women engineers
in the United States. In 1989 the proportion of women engineers was only 7.5
percent.
In contrast, the teaching profession was a large field of
employment for women. In the late 1980s more than twice as many women as men
taught in elementary and high schools. In higher education, however, women held
only about one third of the teaching positions, concentrated in such fields as
education, social service, home economics, nursing, and library science. A
small proportion of
Women College and university teachers
were in the physical sciences, engineering, agriculture, and law.
During wartime women have served in the armed forces. In the
United States during World War II almost 300,000 women served in the Army and
Navy, performing such noncombatant jobs as secretaries, typists, and nurses.
Many European women fought in the underground resistance movements during World
War II. In Israel women are drafted into the armed forces along with men and
receive combat training.
Women constituted more than 45 percent of employed persons
in the United States in 1989, but they had only a small share of the decision-making
jobs. Although the number of women working as managers, officials, and other
administrators has been increasing, in 1989 they were outnumbered about 1.5 to
1 by men. Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, women in 1970 were paid about 45
percent less than men for the same jobs; in 1988, about 32 percent less.
Professional women did not get the important assignments and promotions given
to their male colleagues. Many cases before the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission in 1970 were registered by women charging sex discrimination in
jobs.
Working women often faced discrimination on the mistaken
belief that, because they were married or would most likely get married, they
would not be permanent workers. But married women generally continued on their
jobs for many years and were not a transient, temporary, or undependable work
force. From 1960 to the early 1970s the influx of married women workers
accounted for almost half of the increase in the total labor force, and working
wives were staying on their jobs longer before starting families. The number of
elderly working also increased markedly.
Since 1960 more and more women with children have been in
the work force. This change is especially dramatic for married women with
children under age 6: 12 percent worked in 1950, 45 percent in 1980, and 57
percent in 1987. Just over half the mothers with children under age 3 were in
the labor force in 1987.
Weisberg, D. Kelly. Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations.
Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1993. Print.
Author: Sarah C.
